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电力部门控制二氧化硫排放的美国经验
History 历史
In the 1970s, the environmental, social, and economic effects of acid rain in the United States became a major concern to policy makers and the public. This resulted in passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970 and subsequent amendments in 1977 and 1990.
上世纪七十年代，酸雨在美国的环境、社会和经济影响已经成为政策制订者和民众的主要关注对象。这导致了1970年“清洁空气法案”的通过及其1977年和1990年的修订。
美 国 二 氧 化 硫 排 放 历 史
Million Short Tons
大 萧 条
二 战
清 洁 空 气 法 案
无 清 洁 空 气 法 案
酸 雨 项 目
Researchers linked acid rain to SO2 emissions. By 1990, two thirds of SO2 emissions in the US were from the power sector (‘Utilities’) 科学家认为酸雨的产生与二氧化硫排放有关。1990年以前，美国有三分之二的二氧化硫是电力部门排放的
Three US Approaches to Controlling SO2 Emissions 美国控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施
Standards-based 标准限制
NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) define attainment and protect human health by setting a limit on SO2 concentration nationwide. New and modified sources must meet technology and performance standards designed to prevent any significant deterioration of air quality. These standards set maximum emission levels and may specify BACT – ‘Best Available Control Technology’ for new units. 国家环境空气质量标准规定了全国的二氧化硫浓度限值来保护人民健康。新建和改建的污染源必须满足设计的技术和性能标准来防止空气质量的恶化。这些标准设定了最大排放水平，还可能指定新设备要使用的“最佳可用控制技术”。
Voluntary programs 自愿的项目
Government agencies working with industry to establish 政府和工业部门合作建立
Demand Side Management programs, to encourage consumers to reduce usage during periods of peak demand. Electric utilities are extending time-of-use metering with three different price levels (on-peak, off-peak and intermediate) from commercial customers to residential. ‘Smart meters’ display actual cost to the user. 需求方管理项目，来鼓励消费者在需求高峰期减少用量。用电的高峰、低估和中间时期有不同的价格水平。
Energy Conservation measures such as more efficient appliances 节能措施如节能设备
Renewable energy. . EPA is the first US government agency to purchase 100% renewable. (How much? 300 million kWh per year primarily through the development of wind farms). 可再生能源。美国环保署是第一个购买100％可再生能源的的美国政府机关 （多少？3亿千瓦时每年，主要通过发展风能）
Three US Approaches to Controlling SO2 Emissions 美国控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施
Cap & Trade 排污交易
The Acid Rain Program (ARP) established an absolute cap on SO2 emissions for affected sources. It is national in scope, and through market-based allowance trading it allows plant operators to select their own compliance strategy. The EPA currently issues SO2 allowances annually. Allowances are a financial asset and may be traded on the market. As such, they provide an incentive for industry to increase efficiency, innovate, and reduce emissions within certain timeframes. The . EPA Clean Air Markets Division (CAMD) operates the ARP Cap & Trade program which is responsible for the bulk of SO2 reductions. 酸雨项目建立了一个所有二氧化硫污染源的排放总量的绝对限值。这是一个国家的总量，通过基于市场的排污交易，不同的企业可以选择自己的达标战略。美国环保署现在每年发放了890万吨的二氧化硫排污配额。排污配额是一种资产，可以在市场上进行交易。这样一来，在一定时间框架下，企业有动力提高他们的效率、创新和减排能力。
Although these approaches differ in philosophy and implementation they have been complementary to the goal of lowering emissions. 尽管这些措施的哲学和实施角度不同，他们都是实现减排目标的重要补充。
分 配 职 责
二 氧 化 硫 排 放 1990
Acid Rain Program (ARP) units in the US now total approximately 3,600. 美国现在约有3600个酸雨项目
10 吨
10 吨
10 吨
5 吨
3 吨
7 吨
蓝 色
成 本 : $200/吨
Green
成 本 : $160/吨
褐 色
成 本 : $240/吨
消 减 量 : 5 吨
消 减 量 : 7 吨
消 减 量 : 3 吨
以 每 吨 $160 - $240 转 让 2 个 配 额
限 额 与 交 易
Essentials of Cap & Trade 排污交易的核心内容
Set a mandatory emissions cap based on sound scientific evidence that the limit will have the desired environmental effect. 足够的科学证据说明限制可以取得预期的环境收益，基于此，设定强制性的排放总量限值
Establish Cap & Trade as an alternative to traditional regulation — not simply a trading feature added to existing regulation. 排污交易是传统法规的一个补充，不是简单地把交易的特点赋予现有的法规
Ensure that a significant number of sources will participate sufficient to create a viable allowance market. 保证有足够的污染源参与交易来建立一个有效的排污交易市场
Allocate allowances in an amount not to exceed the cap. 给各个污染源分配允许的最大污染物排放量
Mandate that sources must hold allowances to cover annual emissions. 强制污染源必须保留排污配额来冲抵年排放量
Monitor and verify emissions. All records, including allowance holdings must be publicly available. 对各个源的排放量进行监督，所有记录必须公开
Enforce rules with automatic penalties.
Assess results on a consistent basis to evaluate how the program is working over time. 持续评价项目实施的效果
二 氧 化 硫 配 额 市 场 活 跃
The SO2 allowance market responds to a variety of signals. Although the historical trend was stable (in the $200 per ton range) for a decade, prices in the last year have climbed in anticipation of lower caps. 很多信号影响二氧化硫排污交易市场。尽管2004年以前的十年里二氧化硫配额市场稳定，但由于预期二氧化硫排放总量限值要下降，去年的二氧化硫排污配额的价格迅速上升。
Current market price on 15 Sept, 2006
SO2 Allowance Price (per ton)
Monitoring & Reporting Emissions 排污的监测和报告
Monitoring of emissions is the foundation of a Cap & Trade program. Continuous Emissions Monitors (CEMS) are used by 36% of ARP units but account for 96% of total SO2 。有36％的酸雨项目使用连续排污监测器，但是他们占二氧化硫排放总量的96％。
. EPA does not certify CEMs, rather, it establishes performance standards for quality control and accuracy. This is intended to encourage innovation among equipment manufacturers. 美国环保署没有开展连续排污监测器认证，不过，他建立了一个质量控制和保证的性能标准。这样做的目的是鼓励仪器生产商进行创新。
ARP provides flexibility for low emitting sources where the use of CEMs is not cost-effective. Note that alternative monitoring methods error on the side of over reporting due to their lower accuracy. 酸雨项目为排污少的污染源提供了更大的灵活性，这些污染源如果使用持续排污监测器是不划算的。注意，替代监测方法的高报误差是它们的准确性低导致的。
Reporting, feedback, and auditing is all electronic. 报告、反馈和审计都是电子的。
Public has access to data (CAMD Data and Maps): / 网上数据公开
Testing of a new CEMs on the stack. Stringent quality assurance of monitoring procedures is the foundation of accurate emissions reporting.
在烟囱上测试一个新的连续排污监测器。严格的监测程序的质量保证是准确的排污报告的基础。