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typesofsentenceareused,whatistheirfunction? Sentencecomplexity:Dosentencesonwholehaveasimpleoracomplexstructure?Whatistheaveragesentencelength?Doescomplexityvarystrikinglyfromonesentencetoanother?Iscomplexitymainlydueto(i)coordination,(ii)subordination,(iii)juxtapositionofclausesorofotherequivalentstructures?Inwhatpartsofthetextdoescomplexitytendtooccur? clausetypes:Whattypesofclausesarefavored—relativeclauses,adverbialclauses,ordifferenttypesofnominalclauses?Arenon-finiteformscommonlyused,andifso,ofwhattypesarethey(infinitive,-ingform,-edform,verblessstructure)?Whatistheirfunction? Clausestructure:Isthereanythingsignificantaboutclauseelements(egfrequencyofobjects,adverbials,complements;oftransitiveorintransitiveverbconstructions)?Arethereanyunusualorderings(initialadverbials,frontingofobjectorcomplement,etc)?Dospecialkindsofclauseconstructionoccur(suchasthosewithpreparatoryitorthere)? Nounphrases:Aretheyrelativelysimpleorcomplex?Wheredoesthecomplexitylie(inpremodificationbyadjectives,nouns,etc,orinpostmodificationbyprepositionbyprepositionalphrases,relativeclauses,etc)? Verbphrases:Arethereanysignificantdeparturesfromtheuseofthesimplepasttense?Forexample,noticeoccurrencesandfunctionsofthepresenttense,oftheprogressiveaspect,oftheperfectaspect,ofmodalauxiliaries. otherphrasetypes:Isthereanythingtobesaidaboutotherphrasestypes,suchasprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,adjectivephrases? Wordclasses:Havingalreadyconsideredmajorwordclasses,wemayconsiderminorwordclasses(egfunctionalwords),suchasprepositions,conjunctions,pronouns,determiners,auxiliaries,(egdemonstrativessuchasthisandthat,negativessuchasnot,nothing)? General:Notewhetheranygeneraltypesofgrammaticalconstructionareusedtospecialeffect(egcomparativeorsuperlativeconstructions,coordinativeorlistingconstructions,parentheticalconstructions,interjectionsandafterthoughtsasoccurincausalspeech).Andseetothenumberoflistsandcoordinations. FiguresofSpeech Hereweconsiderthefeatureswhichareforegroundedbyvirtueofdepartinginsomewayfromgeneralnormsofcommunicationbymeansofthelanguagecode,forexample,exploitationofdeviationsfromthelinguisticcode. Grammaticalandlexicalschemes(foregroundedrepetitionsofexpression):Arethereanycasesofformalandstructuralrepetition(anaphora,parallelism,etc)orofmirror-imagepatterns(chiasmus)?Istherhetoricaleffectoftheseoneofantithesis,reinforcement,climax,anticlimax,etc? Phonologicalschemes:Arethereanyphonologicalpatternsofrhyme,alliteration,assonance,etc?Arethereanysalientrhythmicalpatterns?Dovowelsandconsonantsoundspatternorclusterinparticularways?Howdothesephonologicalfeaturesinteractwithmeaning? Tropes(foregroundedirregularitiesofcontent):Arethereanyobviousviolationsoforneologismsfromthelinguisticcode?Forexample,arethereanyneologisms(suchas“portentousinfants”)?Arethereanysemantic,syntactic,phonological,orgraphologicaldeviations?Suchdeviationsareoftenthecluetospecialinterpretationsassociatedwithtraditionalfiguresofspeechsuchasmetaphor,metonymy,synecdoche,paradox,,whatkindofspecialinterpretationisinvolved(forexample,metaphorcanbeclassifiedaspersonifying,animalizing,concretizing,synaesthetic,etc)? Contextandcohesion ;forinstance,,roughlythematerial,mental,personal,interactional,social,institutional,cultural,andhistoricalsituationinwhichthediscourseismade,weconsidertheexternalrelationsoftheliterarytextorapartofthetext,seeingitasadiscoursepresupposingasocialrelationbetweenitsparticipants(authorandreader,characterandcharacter,characterandreader,etc.),andasharingofknowledgeandassumptionsbyparticipants. Cohesion:Doesthetextcontainlogicalorotherlinksbetweensentences(egcoordinatingconjunctions,linkingadverbials),ordoesittendtoreplyonimplicitconnectionsofmeaning?Whatsortofuseismadeofcross-referencebypronouns(she,it,they,etc),bysubstituteforms(do,so,etc),orellipsis?Isthereanyusemadeofelegantvariation—theavoidanceofrepetitionbysubstitutionofadescriptivephrase(as“theoldlawyer”substitutesfortherepetitionofanearlier“MrJones”)?Aremeaningconnectionsreinforcedbyrepetitionofwordsandphrases,orbyrepeatedlyusingwordsfromthesamesemanticfield? Context:Doesthewriteraddressthereaderdirectly,orthroughthewordsorthoughtsofsomefictionalcharacter?Whatlinguisticclues(egfirstpersonpronounsI,me,my,mine)arethereoftheaddresser-addresseerelationship?Whatattitudedoestheauthorimplytowardshis/hersubject?Ifacharacter’swordsorthoughtsarerepresented,isthisdonebydirectquotation,orbysomeothermethod(egindirectspeech,freeindirectspeech)?Aretheresignificantchangesofstylewithrespecttodifferentpersons(narratororcharacter)whoissupposedlyspeakingorthinkingthewordsonthepage?Whatisthepointofviewofthestory?Arethefrequentshiftsofpointview?Ifso,inwhosevoiceisthenarratorspeaking? ChapterSevenSymbol Whatissymbol? Symbol,inthesimplestsense,anythingthatstandsfororrepresentssomethingelsebeyond it—;andwordsarealsosymbols.(.),,. Asrhetoricaldevice,symbolisdifferentfrommetaphor,,whichrepresentsabstracttermslike“love”or“truth,”—particularobjects,characters,setting,andactions—,repetition,connotativelanguage,orotherartisticdevices. ’snovelTheGreatGatsby,,;hehintsthatsomesad,:inliterature,,,adoveisasymbolofpeace,theflagisthesymbolofacountry,,suchasfigure3,,aliterarysymboldoesnothaveacommonsocialacceptance,asdoestheflag;itis,rather,asymbolthepoetorthewriteradoptsforthepurposeofhis/herwork,,metaphors,andimages,etc:theyhelptoexpresshis/,inliteratureandeverydaylifeaswell,(audible),inliteraryworks,symbols,unlikethoseinordinarylife,usuallydonot“standfor”anyonemeaning,norforanythingabsolutelydefinite;theypoint,theyhint,or,asHenryJamesputit,theycastlongshadows. Symbolism Thetermsymbolismreferstotheuseofsymbols,ortoasetofrelatedsymbols,whichisoneofthedevicesthatenrichshortfictionandcompensateforitsbriefnessinspace.  ,whenareaderreadsaworkoffiction,hisfocusismostlycastupontheplot,thecharacter,andthelanguageused,sothatthesymbolsareautomaticallybackgroundedonthereader’,:thescarletletterAwornbyHesterconveysamultipleofsenseswhichdiffergreatlyfromwhatitliterallystandsfor,’,’sMoby-Dick,inwhichthehugewhitewhaleinthetitleofthebookacquiresgreatermeaningthantheliteraldictionary-,,asthestoryunfolds,comestoimplyanamplitudeofmeanings:amongthemtheforcesofnatureandthewholeuniverse. Literarysymbolsareoftwobroadtypes:,ajourneyintotheunderworldandreturnfromitisinterpretedasaspiritualexperienceoradarknightofthesoul,(andsometimesunconsciously),,inMoby-Dickthevoyage,theland,andtheoceanareobjectspregnantwithmeaningsthatseemalmostindependentoftheauthor’suseoftheminthestory;ontheotherhand,,inHemingway’sAFarewelltoArms,rain,whichisgenerallyregardedasasymboloflife(especiallyinspring),andwhichisamildlyannoyingmeteorologicalphenomenonintheopeningchapter,isconvertedintoasymbolofdeaththroughtheusestowhichitisputinthework.  ’s“ARoseforEmily,”MissEmily’sinvisiblebutperceptiblewatchtickingattheendofagoldenchainnotonlyindicatesthepassageoftime,butsuggeststhattimepasseswithoutevenbeingnoticedbythewatch’’s“Araby,”theverynameofthebazzar,Araby—thepoeticnameforArabia—suggestsmagic,romance,andTheArabianNights;itssyllables,thenarratortellsus,“castanEasternenchantmentoverme.”Evenalocale,orafeatureofphysicaltopography,éinErnestHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”isnotmerelyacafé,butanislandofrefugefromsleeplessnight,chaos,loneliness,oldage,themeaninglessnessoflife,,’sHeartofDarkness,asteamshipcompanythathiresmentoworkinCongomaintainsinitswaitingroomtwowomenwhoknitblackwool—,’sMissEmily,twiceappearsatawindowofherhouses“likethecarventorsoofanidolintheniche.”ThoughFaulknerinvestsherwithlifeandvigor,healsoclothesherinsymbolichints:sheseemsalmostto
typesofsentenceareused,whatistheirfunction? Sentencecomplexity:Dosentencesonwholehaveasimpleoracomplexstructure?Whatistheaveragesentencelength?Doescomplexityvarystrikinglyfromonesentencetoanother?Iscomplexitymainlydueto(i)coordination,(ii)subordination,(iii)juxtapositionofclausesorofotherequivalentstructures?Inwha