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ChapterIInvitationtolinguistics
?
,,,alternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.
Itconcernswiththesystematicstudyoflanguageor,adisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatestheoriesastohowlanguageworks.
?Thedefinitionofthesedesignfeatures:arbitrariness,duality,creativity,anddisplacement
,duality,creativity,displacement,etc..
,evenwithonomatopoeicwords
,andcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusagebefore.
Displacementreferstothefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.
’sclassificationoffunctionsoflanguage.
1).Referentialfunction所指功能2).Poeticfunction诗学功能3).Emotivefunction感情功能
4).Conativefunction意动功能5).Phaticfunction交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能
HuZhuanglin’classificationoffunctionsoflanguageandusesomeexamplestoillustratethem.
1).Informativefunction信息功能2).Interpersonalfunction人际功能3).Performativefunction
4).Emotivefunction感情功能5).Phaticcommunion交感性讲话6).Recreationalfunction
施为功能娱乐性功能
7).Metalingualfunction元语言功能
:Whodistinguishedthem?
;
Descriptive(描绘式eg:Americandon
):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.
’tsay“I’llgiveyousomecolorseesee.
”
Prescriptive(规定式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,
rulesforlanguageuse.
eg:Don’tsay“I’llgiveyousomecolorseesee.
”
;
Synchronicstudy(共时性)---descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime
Diachronicstudy(历时性)---descriptionofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)
langue&parole;
Langue:(说话者的语言能力.)thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.
Parole:(语言的实质现象或语料.)theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).
competenceandperformance.
Competence:(一个语言使用者对于语言系统规则的基本理解.)alanguageuser’underlyingsknowledgeabout
thesystemofrules.
Performance:(指在详细场景中语言的真切使用.)theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.
.
’
Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.
Aspeaker’scompetenisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.
Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.
’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleandChomsky
distinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?
Saussure'slanguageissocialproduct,asetofconversationsforaspeechcommunity.②Chomskyregards
competenceaspropertyofthemindofeachindividual.③SaussurestudieslanguagemorefromasociologicalpointofviewwhileChomskystudiesitmorefromapsychologicalpointofview.
Chapter2Speechsounds
Phonetics
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(OttoJespersonFrance)IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhonetic
.
Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.
ThefirstversionofIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.
Thelatestversionwasdevisedin1993andcorrectedin1996and2005.
:
placeofarticulation:placeinthemouthwhereobstructionoccurs
mannersofarticulation:waysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished
stateofvocalcords:
thecategoriesofconsonantsaccordingtothemannerofarticulationandtheplaceofaritucatio
:
Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels单元音
Diphthongsorglidingvowels双元音
(parameters)ofvoweldescription
theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);
thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);
thelengthortensenessofthevowel(),and
lip-rounding().
Phonology
:
Co-articulation:Simultaneous/overlappingarticulationbecauseoftheinfluenceoftheneighborsound(s)
broad/narrowtranscription:Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription;Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.
3)Phone:thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)
Phoneme:asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)
5)allophonephonic:variantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.
6)Minimalpairs:Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning;
2)
onlyonephonemedifferent;
3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.
:pat-fat;
lit-lip;phone-tone
Minimalset:
pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc
7)Suprasegmentalfeatures:featuresthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegment,suchasstress(重音),length(音程),rhythm(节奏),tone(音调),intonation(语调)juncture(音渡).
8)syllable:
,phonemeandallophone.
.Phone(音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)
i)phoneticunitii)notnecessarilydistinctiveofmeaningiii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwith[]
.Phoneme(音位):Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)
i)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//.
.allophone(音位变体):phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.
.:pot,spot,cup:[ph]vs.[p]vs.[p?](unreleased)
?
Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,,transmissionandperceptionofspeechsounds.
Chapter3Morphology
“word”
Aphysicallydefinableunit:aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopauseorblank.
Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm.
Agrammaticalunit.
.
Wordscanbeclassifiedintermsof:
(1)(可变词/不行变词)
★(2)(语法词/词汇词)
(3)Closed--classwords(关闭词/开放词)
(4)wordclass(词类)
(1)(可变词/不行变词)
theformerreferstowordshavinginflectivechanges(屈折变化)whilethelatterreferstowordshavingnosuchendings.
Variablewords:follow;follows;following;followed
Invariablewords:since;when;seldom;through;hello
(2)()
.Theformerreferstothosewordsexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions(连词),prepositions(介词),articles(冠词),andpronouns(代词);
.thelatterreferstowordshavinglexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,.,v.,adj.,andadv.
(3)Closed--classwords封(闭词/开放词)
.theformerreferstowordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited;.,prep.,conj.,article.
..:n.,v.,adj.,adv.(4)wordclass(词类)
:
1)
Morphology:
Morphology
is
a
branch
of
linguistics,
which
studies
the
internal
structure
of
words
and
the
rules
bywhich
words
are
formed.
Morpheme:thesmallestunitofmeaning,whichcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.
Freemorphemes:morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.
Boundmorphemes:morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwords
Inflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.
Derivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,
threekindsaccordingtoposition:prefix,suffixandinfix.
Affix:isthetermforthetypeofformthatcanbeusedtoaddtoanothermorpheme(rootorstem)’tbeusedfreelyinsentence.
prefix:changemeaningeg:dis-;un-;mis-
suffix:changepartofspeecheg:-ly;-ness;-tion
infix:somelanguagesalsohaveinfixes,affixmorphemesthatareinsertedintorootorstemmorphemestodividethemintotwoparts.
Inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchas
tense,number,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.
5)word-formation
Compound:referringtothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceanewword.②Derivation:thewaytoformwordswithacombinationofrootsandaffixes.
Nylon
★(1)Invention
新造词
★(2)
Blending
混淆词
smoke+fog
→smog
★(3)
Abbreviation
缩合词
TV→television
★(4)
Acronym
首字母缩略词
NATO
(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)
★(5)back-formation
逆构词
editoredit
★(6)analogicalcreation
类比造词
p76
★(7)
Borrowing
借词、外来词
KongFu
Chapter4Syntax
:
Syntax:isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.
paradigmaticRelations:
SyntagmaticRelations:
EndocentricConstructions:isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofits
constituents,.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.
ExocentricConstructions:referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsis
functionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre
Category:referstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:
Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountability
Categoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice
”
or
“H
:
relationsofposition
地点关系
Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.
relationsofsubstitutability可代替性关系
TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyin
sentenceswiththesamestructure.
relationsofco-occurrence同现关系
Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.
(ICAnalysis)
Immediateconstituentanalysisisaformoflinguisticreviewthatbreaksdownlongerphrasesorsentencesintotheirconstituentparts,,andgetsusedextensivelybyawiderangeoflanguageexperts.
,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:
Coordinationandsubordination
CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogether
twoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.
Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.
Characteristicsofsubjects
Wordorder:Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement
Pro-forms(代词形式):ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject
Agreementwiththever