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外文文献可持续旅游开发.doc

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外文文献可持续旅游开发.doc

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THESOCIO-ECONOMICSUSTAINABILITYOFTOURISMDEVELOPMENTINTHEOKAVANGODELTA,BOTSWANA
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Abstract
ThegrowthoftourismintheOkavangoDeltainthelast10-:Towhatextentistourismcontributingtotheimprovementofrurallivelihoodsandsustainabledevelopment?Whatistheroleoflocalcommunitiesintourismdevelopmentandnaturalresourceuseandmanagement?ThispaperarguesthatlocalgroupscanmeaningfullyparticipateinmonitoringandinthesustainableuseoftheOkavangoDeltaiftheyderivedirectsocio-economicbenefitsfromtourism,,,-BasedNaturalResourceManagement(CBNRM),,tourismintheOkavangoDeltacannotbedescribedasbeingsocio--operationandparticipationofallstakeholdersparticularlythelocalcommunitiesisvitalifeffectivemonitoringandsustainablemanagementoftheOkavangoDeltaaretobeachieved.
INTRODUCTION
Tourismisarguablytheworld’slargestandfastestgrowingindustry,accountingforaboutfivepercentoftheworld’sGrossNationalProductandsixpercentoftheemployment(Glassonetal,1995).Mostgovernmentsencouragetourismforitsabilitytospreadeconomicdevelopmentandreduceinequalitiesinincomedistributionbyprovidingjobs(Pearce,1988;CoccossisandParpairis,1995;WahabandPigrim,1997).Forpoorcountries,regions,townsandcities,tourismisseenasthefasttracktodevelopment(Glassonetal,1995).Tourismisthereforeviewedbygovernmentasacatalystfornationalandregionaldevelopment,bringingemployment,exchangeearnings,balanceofpaymentsadvantages,andimportantinfrastructuraldevelopmentsbenefitinglocalsandvisitorsalike(Glassonetal,1995).
InBotswanatourismasaneconomicsectorwasalmostnon-,by2002,ithadgrowntobecomethesecondlargesteconomicsectorinthecountry,%totheGrossDomesticProduct(Mbaiwa,2002).TourismisdescribedbyBotswana’sTourismPolicyof1990asthenew“engineofgrowth”ofwhichthemainaimistodiversifythecountry’seconomythroughthepromotionoftourism(GovernmentofBotswana,1990).Botswana’stourismindustryrapidlygrewfromthe1990slargelyreliesontheabundanceofwildliferesourcesandthescenicbeautyinthenorthernpartsofthecountry,,awetlandofinternationalimportanceandaRamsarsiteishometo5,000insects,3,000plants,540birds,164mammals,157reptiles,80fishandcountlessmicro-organisms(Rothert,1997).Itisalsohometoover100,%ofthemdirectlyordirectlydependonthenaturalresourcesfoundinthewetlandtosustaintheirlivelihoods(Mbaiwa,2002).
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TourismintheOkavangoDeltainvolvesbothconsumptiveandnon-,lodgesandcamps,tarredroads,,wholesaleandretailbusinesseshavebeenestablished,especiallyinMaun,,:a)Towhatextentistourismcontributingtotheimprovementofrurallivelihoods?b)Towhatextentarelocalpeopleparticipatingandbenefitingfromtourismdevelopment?c)Whatisthecontributionoftourismtosustainabledevelopment?d)Whoownsandcontrolstourismfacilitiesandactivities?e)WhatistheroleoflocalpeopleinnaturalresourceuseintheOkavangoDelta?f)WhatistheroleoflocalcommunitiesinthemonitoringandmanagementoftheOkavangoDelta?Answerstothesequestionsshoulddeterminewhethertourismiscontributingtosustainabledevelopmentbypromotingruraleconomicdevelopmentandensuringecologicalsustainability.
Thispaperassessesthesocio--,thepaperexaminestherolethattourismcanplayinpromotinglong--BasedNaturalResourceManagement(CBNRM)projectandVillageDevelopmentCommitteemembersinthevillagesofKhwai,Seronga,,,reportsandotherpublishedandunpublisheddocuments.
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SUSTSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTANDTOURISM
Theincreasedglobalenvironmentalconcernofthe1980sledtoresearchonthemeaningofsustainabletourisminthe1990s(Pigram,1995).Becausetourismhascultural,economic,andenvironmentalimpacts,it“,destroyingtheveryenvironmentalattractionswhichvisitorscometoalocationtoexperience”(Plog,1974).Glassonetal.(1995)statethattourismis,byitsverynature,,regulated,,tourismhasthepotentialofbeingarenewableindustry,-termgoalsandobjectives,,,itmustbeeconomicallyviable,ecologicallysensitiveandculturallyappropriate(Wall,1997).Abasicprincipleofsustainabledevelopmentisintergenerationalequity:-of-lifeassetsnolessthanthosewehaveinherited(Pearceetal.,1989).AccordingtoAngelsonetal.(1994),andMunasingheandMcNeely(1995),theconceptofsustainabledevelopmentishingedonthreebroadapproachesandconcerns:(a)economicefficiency,(b)socialequity,and(c)ecologicalsustainability.
(a)(Serageldin1993;MunasingheandMcNeely1995).Theaimistoproducethemaximumoutputinordertoachieveahighstandardoflivingofthepeoplewithintheconstraintsoftheexistingcapital(Markandya1993;Paehlke1999).Althougheconomicsustainabilityimpliesmeetingtheeconomicneedsofeveryonethroughtheuseofnaturalresources,Ndubano(2000),therefore,suggestthattourismdevelopmentintheOkavangoDeltashouldmeettheneedsofallstakeholdersparticularlytheruralcommunitiesinanattempttopromoteruraldevelopment.
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(b),-culturaldiversity(Sachs,1999).,benefits,decision-makingandmanagement,whichintheorywilleradicatepoverty(UNCED,1992).Tourismdevelopmentshouldshowthattourismisasocio-(Murphy,1985).Culturaltourismbroadensthescopeoftheindustry,promotesappreciationoftheindustryamonglocalsandthusensuresagreatercommunityinvolvementandamoreequitableshareoftheprosperitybroughtaboutbytourism(Murphy,1985).
(c)(Serageldine,1993).Thisisbasedontheassumptionthatthedynamicprocessesofthenaturalenvironmentcanbecomeunsustainableasaresultofstressesimposedbyhumanactivity(MunasingheandMcNeely,1995).Ecologicalsustainabilitythereforereferstomaintainingasystem’sstability,whichimplieslimitingthestressonecosystemscentraltothesustainabilityoftheglobalsystem(Perrings,1991).Paehlke(1999)writesthatenvironmental(ecological)sustainabilityincludesconservationofecology,air,water,.
Thesethreeconceptsofeconomic,social,andecologicalsustainabilityareinter-,thefailuretomeetsocio-economicneedsofstakeholders,particularlylocalcommunities,(ACORD2002a,2002b,2002c,2002d)areaamongruralcommunities,failurebythesecommunitiestoderivedirectsocio-,thepowerofthesustainabledevelopmentconceptliesinitsdualbenefits—itbothopensupnewopportunitiesandavoidsthetrapoftradingoffenvironmentalgoalsagainsteconomicgrowth(Darkoh,1996).Inthispaper,.
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Economicaspects
Ownershipoftourismfacilities.
Tourismfacilities,suchashotels,lodgesandcamps,%,%are100%%%arefullyownedbycitizens.
,2001
Ownership
FrequencyandPercentages
Tourismfacilities
DatafromDepartmentofTourism
CitizenOwned
JointlyOwned
Non-CitizenOwned
12(%)
18(%)
35(%)
16(%)
36(%)
51(%)
Totals
65(%)
103(%)
Source:Mbaiwa(2002)
Inarelatedstudy,Ndubano(2000)foundthatabout95%oftheaccommodationandtransportsectorsinMaunhaveforeigninvolvement,with60%ofthembeing100%foreignowned,35%jointlyownedbetweenlocalsandexpatriates,only1%,16(%)werecitizenowned,36(%)werejointlyowned(betweenBatswanaandnon-citizens)while51(%)werenon-(%)ofthetourismrelatedcompaniesregisteredinMaunandoperationalintheOkavangoregionhavesomeforeignownership.
ForeigninvestorsandcompaniesalsodominateconcessionareasleasedbytheTawanaLandBoardintheOkavangoDelta(theTawanaLandBoardisthegovernmentinstitutionchargedwithlandallocationandmanagementfortheOkavangoregion).AsshowninTable2,outof15concessionareasleasedbytheTawanaLandBoard,4(%)areleasedtocitizencompanies,6(%)tojointventurecompanies,and5(%)tonon--citizencompaniesarethusdirectlyinvolvedin11(%)ofthe15concessionareasunderthecontrolofTawanalandBoard.

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Table2:ConcessionAreasLeasedbyTawanaLandBoardinNgamiland,2001
Ownership
NoofCHAs
Percentage
Citizen
Jointly
Non-Citizens
4
6
5



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