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InternationalJournalof
EnvironmentalResearch
andPublicHealth
Article
SocialEnvironmentalAntecedentsofAthletes’Emotions
,*,,,LauraBortoli3andClaudioRobazza3
1FacultyofSportandHealthSciences,UniversityofJyväskylä,40014Jyväskylä,Finland
2SchoolofSport,ExerciseandRehabilitationSciences,CollegeofLifeandEnvironmentalSciences,University
ofBirmingham,EdgbastonBirmingham,BirminghamB152TT,UK;P.******@(.);
.******@(.)
3BIND-BehavioralImagingandNeuralDynamicsCenter,DepartmentofMedicineandAgingSciences,
“’Annunzio”UniversityofChieti-Pescara,66013Chieti,Italy;l.******@(.);
c.******@(.)
*Correspondence:montse.******@
Abstract:Thecoach-createdmotivationalclimateinfluencesvariationsinathletes’motivationand
athletes’(N=262,52%female,Mage=)completedquestion-
nairesassessingperceptionsofcoach-createdmotivationalclimates,goalorientations,motivation
regulations,(.,task/ego)andmotivation
regulations(.,autonomous/controlled)ontherelationshipbetweenmotivationalclimate(.,
empowering/disempowering)andemotions(.,happiness,excitement,anxiety,dejection,and
anger)
ofadisempoweringclimatepositivelypredictedanxiety,dejection,andangerviaegoorientation
,theflndingshaveimplicationsforcoacheducationasthey
Citation:Ruiz,.;Appleton,.;highlighttheimportanceofcreatingmoreempoweringenvironmentsandavoidingorreducing
Duda,.;Bortoli,L.;Robazza,.
SocialEnvironmentalAntecedentsof
Athletes’:emotions;mediation;motivation;structuralequationmodeling
,18,4997.
/ijerph18094997
AcademicEditor:
Athletes’experiencesassociatedwithperformancehaveimportantrepercussionsfor
Received:2April2021
Accepted:5May2021theirperformanceandwellbeing[1,2].Insport,oneofthesocialpsychologicalpredictors
Published:8May2021ofathletes’wellbeingandfunctioningisthecoach-createdmotivationalclimate,which
influencesvariationsinmotivationqualityaswellasemotionalexperiences[3].Thisstudy
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstaysneutralaimedtofurthertheunderstandingofthesocialenvironmentalfactorsinfluencingathletes’
withregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinemotionalexperiences.
publishedmapsandinstitutionalaffll-Thesocialpsychologicalenvironmentsuchastheonecreatedbythecoachisan
’experiencesandtheirqualityofsportengagement[3,4].
Accordingtoachievementgoaltheory[4],perceivedmotivationalclimateisafeatureofthe
socialenvironmentwithdifferentimplicationsdependingonwhetheranindividualismore
orlesstask-orego--involvingclimateinenvironments
Copyright:©,accepterrorsaspartoflearning,andfocusonimprove-
LicenseeMDPI,Basel,,coacheswhoemphasizecomparisonbasedonability
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticleandrivalry,evaluateprogressintermsofoutperformingothers,andprovidedifferential
distributedunderthetermsandattentionandrecognitiontoathletesofdifferentabilitiescreateanego-involvingclimate.
conditionsoftheCreativeCommonsInachievementgoaltheory,twotypesofdispositionalgoalorientationsaredistinguished
Attribution(CCBY)license(https://dependingontheindividualtendencytoemphasizetask-orego-focusedcriteriatodeflne
-orientedindividualsfocusonimprovementandhaveaself-referenced
/).perceptionoftheircompetence,whereasego-orientedindividualsfocusonoutperforming
,18,:///ijerph18094997:.
,18,49972of13
others,reflectinganother-
perceptionsofatask-involvingclimateareassociatedwithintrinsicmotivation,taskori-
entation,increasedeffort,andpleasantaffectiveexperiences,whereasperceptionsofan
ego-involvingclimatearelinkedwithegoorientation,extrinsicmotivation,andnegative
affect[5–8].
Accordingtoself-determinationtheory[3],thesocialenvironmentcreatedbythe
coach,intermsofbeingmoreorlessautonomy-supportiveorcontrolling,isassociated
-determinationtheorypostulatesthat
individuals’motivationregulationscanbeplacedonacontinuumspanningfrommost
self--determinedorautonomousformsofmoti-
vationrefertoengaginginanactivityoutofpleasureandchoiceasindividualsunderstand
-determinedorcontrolledmotivation,in
contrast,derivesfromengagementinanactivityforinternalorexternalpressuresindi-
catingthatcontingenciesofself--supportive
environments,thatis,thoseenvironmentsinwhichathletes’preferencesandfeelingsare
acknowledged,andsociallysupportiveenvironments,inwhichathletesfeelcaredforand
valued[9],aresupportiveoftheirbasicpsychologicalneedsofautonomy,competence,
,incontrollingcoachingenvironmentsathletesfeelpressured,
coerced,orintimidated[10].Moreautonomy-supportiveandlesscontrollingenvironments
areexpectedtoresultinoptimalengagementandautonomousmotivation.
Consideringthedifferentfeaturesofthemotivationalclimates(.,task-andego-
involving,autonomy-supportiveandcontrolling)togetherratherthanseparatelyisbe-
lievedtoprovideafullerunderstandingoftheinfluenceofthecoach-createdimpactonath-
letes’experiences[11].Drawingfromachievementgoaltheory[4]andself-determination
theory[3],Dudaetal.[12–14]proposedahierarchicalconceptualizationofthemotivational
climatecreatedbythecoachthatintegratesthemajorsocialenvironmentaldimensions
,themotivational
climatecreatedbythecoachismultidimensionalandcanbeconsideredtobemoreorless
includestask-involvement,autonomy-supportive,andsocially-supportivecharacteristics,
whereasthedisempoweringfeatureofmotivationalclimateisrelatedtoperceptionsofthe
socialenvironmentasego-involvingandcontrolling.
Empoweringclimatesareassumedtosatisfyindividuals’basicpsychologicalneeds,
andtobeassociatedwithautonomousstrivingandhealthyandsustainedengagementin
theactivity,thuspromotingathletes’qualityofengagementandoverallhealth[13].Con-
versely,disempoweringclimatesareexpectedtopredictcontrolledreasonsforengagement,
andhavenegativeimplicationsforathletes’
providedsupportfortheseassumptions,showingthatfacetsofanempoweringclimateare
associatedwithathletes’autonomousmotivationandenjoyment,andnegativelyrelatedto
controlledmotivation[15,16].Themultidimensionalconceptualizationofempoweringand
disempoweringclimateextendsself-determinationtheorybydistinguishingbetweencom-
petenceperseandtask-focusedcompetence,suggestingthat,insomecases,empowering
climatesmaysupportbasicpsychologicalneeds,althoughthismayhavesomedetrimental
consequenceswhencompetenceisconceivedinanego-involvingmanner[11].
StudyPurpose
Framedwithinempoweringanddisempoweringmotivationalclimates[12–14],the
purposeofthestudywastoexaminetheinterplaybetweenathletes’perceptionsofcoach-
createdempoweringanddisempoweringmotivationalclimates,achievementgoalorien-
tations(.,task-andego-orientation),motivationregulations(.,autonomousmotiva-
tion,controlledmotivation),andemotions(.,happiness,excitement,anxiety,dejection,
andanger).Wehypothesizedthatanempoweringclimatewouldpositivelyrelateto
task-orientation,autonomousmotivation,andpleasantemotions(.,happinessandex-
citement),whereasadisempoweringclimatewouldpositivelypredictego-orientation,:.
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controlledmotivation,andunpleasantemotions(.,anxiety,dejection,andanger).Wealso
aimedtoinvestigatethemediationeffectsofgoalorientationsandmotivationregulations
intherelationshipbetweenmotivationalclimateandathletes’emotions.
Inthisstudy,werecruited281Britishathletes(142female,139male)fromavarietyof
team(n=165)andindividual(n=116)’agerangedfrom17to57years
(M=,SD=);-sevenparticipants
werenationallevel,
(SD=).Themeannumberofyearsatthecurrentclub/(SD=).
Participants’perceptionsofcoach-createdempoweringanddisempoweringfeatures
ofthemotivationalclimateweremeasuredontheempoweringanddisempoweringmo-
tivationalclimatequestionnaire(EDMCQ-C)[11].TheEDMCQ-Ccomprises34items.
Seventeenitemsmeasuretask-involving(.,“Mycoachtriedtomakesureplayersfelt
goodwhentheytriedtheirbest”),autonomy-supportive(.,“Mycoachgaveathletes
choicesandoptions”)andsocially-supportiveclimates(.,“Mycoachcouldreallybe
countedontocare,nomatterwhathappened”),andother17itemsmeasureego-involving
(.,“Mycoachfavoredsomeplayersmorethanothers”)andcontrollingclimates(.,
“Mycoachwaslessacceptingofplayersiftheydisappointedhimorher.”).Participants
ratedhowithasusuallybeenontheirteamduringthelast3–4weeksona5-pointLikert
scalerangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree).Adequateinternalconsistency
(., values>),andconvergentanddiscriminantvalidityhave
beenreportedinsamplesofyoungerathletes[11,17].
Motivationregulationsweremeasuredusing20itemsfromtheBehavioralRegulation
inSportQuestionnaire(BRSQ)[18].Theassessedregulationswereintrinsic(.,“because
Ienjoyit”),integrated(.,“becauseit’sapartofwhoIam”),identifled(.,“becausethe
benefltsofsportareimportanttome”),introjected(.,“becauseIwouldfeelashamed
ifIquit”),andexternal(.,“becausepeoplepushmetoplay”),whichweremeasured
-point
Likertscalerangingfrom1(notatalltrue)to7(verytrue).Followingsuggestionsby
RyanandConnell[19],inpreviousresearch,compositescoreshavebeencalculatedto
formautonomous(usingitemsfromintrinsic,integrated,andidentifledregulations)and
controlled(introjectedandexternalregulations)
oftheBRSQhavebeenreportedinathletes[20],withCronbach andcompositereliability
values>(autonomousmotivation)(controlledmotivation),alsoacrossa
three-monthperiod[21].
Participants’dispositionalgoalorientationswereassessedontheTaskandEgoOrien-
tationQuestionnaire(TEOSQ)[22],whichincludes13itemsmeasuringtask(sevenitems)
andego(sixitems)-oriented
(“IfeelmostsuccessfulinsportwhenIlearnanewskillbytryinghard”)orego-oriented(“I
feelmostsuccessfulinsportwhenIcandobetterthanmyteammates”)
areratedona5-pointLikertscalerangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree).
HighinternalconsistencywithCronbach values>(taskorientation)and>(ego
orientation)andevidenceofgoodvalidityforthetwo-factorstructurehavebeenreported
insamplesofathletes[22,23].:.
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TheSportEmotionQuestionnaire(SEQ)[24]wasusedtomea