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ORIGINALRESEARCH
published:11June2021
doi:.640409
Taqs¯ımasaCreativeMusical
ProcessinArabicMusic
üssner*
DepartmentofMusicologyandMediaStudies,Humboldt-UniversitätzuBerlin,Berlin,Germany
Creativityplaysamajorroleinvariousmusicalcontextsincludingcomposition,
isinvolvedinprocessesoflistening,improvisingandcomposing,relativelylittleisknown
,we
aimtoshedlightonthecreativemusicalprocessesunderlyingtaqs¯ımperformance
,qualitativeinterviewshavebeenconductedwiththree
Berlin-
taqs¯ımencompassesmultiplecomponents(.,aflexibleformanddependencyon
maqamaswellastonalmusic)andservesvariousfunctionssuchasdevelopingartistic
,taqs¯ımisaffectedbyinteractionsbetweentraditionandnovelty.
Wediscusstheinterviewdatawithinthecross-culturalexperientialmodelofmusical
creativitydevelopedbyHill(2018),offeringafreshapproachtostudyingtaqs¯ımwhich
Editedby:goesbeyondestablishedconceptssuchastheimprovisation-compositioncontinuum.
RexEugeneJung,Keywords:taqs¯ım,Arabicmusic,musicalcreativity,composition,improvisation
UniversityofNewMexico,
UnitedStates
Reviewedby:INTRODUCTION
AilbheKenny,
MaryImmaculateCollege,IrelandTherelationshipbetweenmusicandcreativityhasbeenstudiedfromnumerousangles,including
PamelaBurnard,
UniversityofCambridge,creativityandlistening(Peterson,2006),creativityineducationalsettings(Crow,2008;Odenaand
UnitedKingdomWelch,2012),andcreativityandmusicalperformance(DeliègeandWiggins,2006).Schiavioand
*Correspondence:Benedek(2020)haverecentlyarguedthatpreviouslyposedtheoriesofcreativityinmusicaland
üssnernon-musicaldomainsdistinguishedbetweenthefollowingfourtypesofcreativity:(1)individual
mats.******@hu-,whichfocusesoncomparingthecreativeproductsofindividualsubjectsandlinking
themtoindividualdifferences(Auh,1997;Villarrealetal.,2013);(2)collectivecreativity(Clarke
Specialtysection:andDoffman(eds),2017;Bishop,2018),whichisfocusedondistributedactivityacrossmembersof
Thisarticlewassubmittedtomusicensemblesaswellasoncomposer-
PerformanceScience,thesocialaspectofmusic-(2012a)havearguedthatasingular
asectionofthejournalunderstandingofmusicalcreativity(liketheoneachievedbyindividualcomposers)resultedina
FrontiersinPsychology
,acollectivistperspectiveonmusiccanbeasource
Received:11December2020ofmeaningfulsocio-,the
Accepted:08April2021audience(asacommunity)playsacrucialroleininfluencingandco-,
Published:11June2021
conceptsofcreativitycanberootedwithinsocio-culturalcontexts,wherecreativitypracticescan
Citation:beconceptualizedasbeingsituatedandcollective(Kenny,2014).Thesocialandculturalcontexts
AlkaeiZandKüssnerMB(2021)inwhichcreativityinmusicoccursallowresearcherstoinvestigateawidescopeofmusicalgenres
Taqs¯ımasaCreativeMusicalProcess
(Burnard,2012a).Psychologistsandcognitivescientistsareinterestedin
:640409.(3)domain-generalperspectivesoncreativity(Beatyetal.,2013),arguingthatdomain-general
doi:.640409abilitiesinfluenceandmaypredictdomain-(4)
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AlkaeiandKüssnerTaqs¯ımasCreativeMusicalProcess
domain-speciflcperspectivesoncreativity(Baer,2015).
studies,itisarguedthatcreativityinonedomaindoesnotflexibleformcomparedtootherArabiccompositionalforms
¯ım(plural:
Benedek(2020)highlightthattheseaspectsshouldnotbetaqas¯¯ım)referstoanon-metricimprovisedsoloforminArabic
“division,”implyingvariation
poles,theydrawfromarangeofscholarshipinmusicandandimprovisation(Nettl,1974).Marcus(1993)pointsoutthat
enactivecognitivescience,andsuggestthatcreativecognitiontaqas¯¯ımarenotsimplyfree-formedproductsofthemusician’s
maybebestunderstoodasaprocessofskillfulorganism-
-¯ım,
Moreover,otherresearchersexploredconnectionsandtensionsaccordingtoMarcus(1993),isahighlyvaluedmusicalgenre
betweencreativityresearchanddevelopmentalpsychologyinArabicmusicbecauseitgivestheplayerstheopportunity
(Sawyeretal.,2003).Inadditiontothat,musicalcreativitycanbetopresenttheirowncreationsinsteadofrelyingonthe
studiedwiththeparadigmofembodiedcognition(Nagy,2016;(2000)elaboratesonthispointby
VanderSchyffetal.,2018).addingthattheabilitytoplaytaqs¯ımisgenerallyconsidereda
Withregardtomusicalactivities,Hargreavesetal.(2011)
havearguedthattherearecommonmentalstructuresunderlyingnotesthatplayingtaqs¯ım,whichmaybeheardincombination
thethreemainactivitiesofmusic:invention(composingandwithnon-improvisedcompositionsoralone,isknowntorequire
improvising),performanceofmusic,andlisteningtoit,andextraordinaryskill,talent,(2012)notes
thatthesestructuresrevealimaginationandcreativity(seethattaqs¯ımcanbeperformedunaccompaniedoraccompanied.
alsoHargreaves,2012).Theactivitiesofmusicinvention(.,Inaccompaniedsettings,taqs¯ımisoftenplayedoverasingle-
composingandimprovising),
asendpointsofacontinuum(Pressing,1984;Sarath,1996;taqs¯ımcanalsooccuroverarepeatedostinato,orwithina
Lehmann,2005;Goldman,2019),althoughastrictseparationrepeatedpercussioncycle.
canbedoubtedfromapsychologicalperspective(Lehmann
andKopiez,2010).ItisalsoquestionablewhetherculturalCompositionandImprovisation
constructssuchas“composition”and“improvisation”canbeTaqs¯ımisoftenseenasanimprovisatorygenre(Touma,
adaptedtoexaminethewiderangeoftransculturalcreative1971;NettlandRiddle,1973;Racy,2000;Shannon,2003;
,2012).Yet,astrictseparationbetweencomposition
denotethat(musical-)culturesmayhaveboundaries,(1974)highlightsthat
,aimprovisationhasbeenconsideredasatypeofcomposition
transculturalperspectiveindicates“
oversteppingofboundariesortheconditionwhichresultsfromofcompositiondependsonreleasingsuddenimpulsestomusic
thisoversteppingofboundaries”(Kim,2017,).Moreover,,ithas
creativethinkinginmusicisnotrestrictedtoonegenre,stylebeenarguedthatimprovisationendswherenotationbegins,
orhistoricalera,ratheritisageneralfeaturefoundinmanywhileotherscontendthatcertainnon-westerncultures,which
musicalactivities(Campbell,1990).Studyingmusicalcreativitydonotusenotation,distinguishbetweenthetwoprocessesby
¯ımisrarelynotated
yet,
BesidesstudyingmusicpracticesfromatransculturalpointasNettlnotes,theabsenceofnotationisnotenoughto
ofview,
asstudyingmigrants’musicmayrevealnewinterconnectionsandcompositioncanbeseenascreativemusic-making
(2006)processes(LehmannandKopiez,2002).Moreover,Nettl(1974)
pointoutthattheculturalandspatialdistancebetweentheproposedacontinuum-baseddeflnitionwherecompositionand
culturalbackgroundofthemigrantsandthecultureoftheimprovisationarethoughtofasbeingatthe“oppositeendsof
settlementplaceaffectthemusicalpracticeinthemigrationacontinuum.”However,itisnotclearwhetheritissensible
(2012)notethatstudyingtolocatetaqs¯ımonsuchalinearbinarycontinuum,because
musicalattitudes,tastes,andpracticescanprovidevaluablewewouldstillneedtodeflneimprovisationandcompositionto
insightsintothedetailsofprocesseslikeassimilation,co-’ssuggestiontoconsider
Furthermore,BailyandCollyer(2006)statethatculturalacontinuum,thewiderobservationofmanymusicaltraditions
“perhapswemust
Here,weproposethatsheddinglightontaqs¯ımamusicalabandontheideaofimprovisationasaprocessseparatefrom
practiceinArabic,TurkishandPersianculturescanenrichcompositionandadopttheviewthatallperformersimprovise
ourperspectiveoncreativeprocessesinmusicandinformthetosomeextent”(Nettl,1974,).Helaterexpressesfurther
¯ımisdoubt,statingthat“weprobablyshouldneverhavestarted
amusicalpracticedependentonoraltransmission,whichmaycallingitimprovisation”(SolisandNettl,2009,ix).Similarly,
allowspacefornoveltybutmaymakeitvulnerabletosigniflcantNooshin(2017)suggeststhatthecontinuummodeldidnotgofar
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AlkaeiandKüssnerTaqs¯ımasCreativeMusicalProcess
.(2012)alsochallengedthedifferentiation
processeswouldultimatelyrequireacompletedissolutionoftheofimprovisationandcompositionbyconceptualizing
composition/,
Kopiez(2002)pointoutthatcompositionandimprovisation“[r]eal-timecompositionbecomesrealizedbymeansofthebody
optimizationprocessesandconstraintsonthecreativeperformersiteofimprovisation.”(2012,).
andprocess,LehmannandKopiezshowthatbothprocessesAstheliteraturediscussedsofarsuggests,itisnotadequateto
tapintothesamementalmechanismsandrequiresimilarassumethattaqs¯,it
¯ımasabroadercreative
-ãveanu(2019)proposesthreedifferent
However,someresearchersmayarguethatthereareimportanttypesoflogicthatcanbeusedtostudycreativityculturally:
(1)thelogicofcomparison,whichfocusesoncomparability
(1986)arguesthatwhatdistinguishesimprovisationfromofcreativity-relatedphenomenaandisusedinmostcross-
compositionisthepre-existenceofalargesetofformalculturalresearch;(2)thelogicofexploration,whichhighlights
constraintswhichcomprisea“blueprint”or“skeleton”forthedifferencesincreativitybetweenindividualsandgroups,mostly
,whodependsusedinculturalorsocioculturalresearch;and(3)thelogicof
ona“blueprint,”canmanagewithoutmuchofthecomposer’sunderstanding,whichisusedintheresearchdependingonlocal
usualdecision-makingprocessespeciallyinaspectslikestructureandbottom-updeflnitionsandcategories.
(2012a)providesarichframeworktostudymusic