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education
sciences
Article
MeasuringStudents’SchoolMotivation
CathérineConradty*
DepartmentofBiologyEducation,CentreofMathsandScienceEducation,UniversityofBayreuth,
95447Bayreuth,Germany;franz.******@uni-
*Correspondence:catherine.******@uni-
Abstract:,young
schoolmotivationneedtobedeveloped,butefflcienttoolstoevaluatethematthelevelofschool
,webuiltupontheestablishedScienceMotivationmeasure
(SMOT)byreformulatingitemsforageneralschoolmotivationscale(SchMOT)andapplyingitto
,weconsider
learningmotivationcorrelatedwithcreativity,asdemonstratedbytheoriginalmotivationques-
four-factorstructure:self-efflcacy,self-determination,intrinsicmotivationandgrademotivation.
;cross-
motivationconflrmedthefactorstructurewithself-efflcacyasthestrongestpredictorofmotivation.
Thecorrelationofmotivationandcreativityrevealedtheparticularimportanceofself-
theneedforself-efflcacy,bothasanindicatorofconduciveteachingandanessentialpedagogicalgoal.
Suggestionsforcreativity-basedteachinginitiativesthatpromoteschoolmotivationbyincorporating
self-efflcacyarediscussed.
Keywords:motivation;schoolmotivation;measurement;creativity;self-efficacy;education;adolescent;
self-determination;grademotivation;creativity
Citation:Conradty,C.;Bogner,.
MeasuringStudents’School
,12,378.
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educsci12060378
Modernclassroomsaimtoeducatematurecitizensreadytodealwithpost-industrial
AcademicEditor:JamesAlbrightculture’scomplexproblems[1].Thelatterrequiresaneducationthatpromotesself-
Received:25March2022responsibilityandreflection[2].
Accepted:26May2022Exceptionalcognitiveperformanceisneededtoachievetheseaspiredskillsforongo-
Published:30May2022ingbiologicalprocessesofassimilationandaccommodation[3]toadaptappropriatelyto
theenvironment[4].Stimulifromtheenvironmentarerequiredtoactivatethesedevel-
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstaysneutralopmentprocesses,asinthedevelopmentofcognitivecreativity,astheyareexperienced
withregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinineverydaylifeorcanbeconsciouslygivenbyeducators[4,5].-
publishedmapsandinstitutionalaffll-gatedhowmotivationcanbeassessedanddevelopedtoincreasestudents’readinessfor
iations.
college[6].Theirresultsrevealedthatmotivationchangesovertimeandthatparticular
interventionshaveprovensuccessfulinchangingdistinctpersonalityfacets,leadingto
,mostpublicinstitutionslacktheappropriatesupportto
Copyright:©,whichcouldhindercognitiveandemotional
LicenseeMDPI,Basel,
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticlegeneration[7,8].
distributedunderthetermsandMaturityinthisscopeshouldbeunderstoodasthestudents’abilitytoactandplan
conditionsoftheCreativeCommonsindependently[9].Amaturationprocessrequirestheadolescent’scognitiontoworkat
Attribution(CCBY)license(https://peakefflciency[9]tomaximiselearningskillsanddealwiththeinterrelationshipsbetween
/).practised[9,10].Maturityprogramsthatpromoteself-knowledgeasindividuals’awareness
,12,:///educsci12060378:.
,12,3782of15
ofthemselvesandtheirabilities[10,11]orself-responsibilityandself-efflcacy[11]have
provenhelpful.
Maturity,however,isadifflcultconcepttodeflneandaccordinglyvagueto
measure[11–13].Thereisevidencethatmaturityisrelatedtoself-efflcacy[14]andre-
latedtoself-responsibilityandself-efflcacy[11],whichisinlinewithMaslow’smotivation
theoryandpersonality[15].FollowingMaslow’stheoryofmotivationandpersonality[15],
schoolmotivationwithself-
study’sresearchquestiontodevelopaquestionnairethatmeasuresschoolmotivationasan
indicatorofmaturity.
Anestablishedquantitativemeasureforself-reportedmotivationistheSMOTscaleby
focusingonscientiflcmotivationinclassrooms[16].Earlierversionswereknownunderthe
acronymSMQ(sciencemotivationquestionnaire).Theinstrumentapplicationhasshown
aflexiblesettingwhenadaptedindiction,language,directprojectreference,andage
level[17–19].Assciencemotivationmeasurementcanbuilduponsometraditionofstudies,
observinggeneralschoolmotivationisstillanopenissue[17,20,21].Reformulatingthis
instrumentforaschoollevelmayofferabridgeforanappropriatemeasureforself-reported
“examinerelationships
betweenstudentmotivationandstudentcharacteristics”[22],thetestresultscanprovide
informationonmotivationalaspectsthathelpovercomemotivationalbarrierstolearning.
SchummandBogneradaptedthewordingoftheSMOTtosecondaryschoolstudents
andconflrmedtheSMOTasapplicabletopupilsafterparaphrasingit[16].Thepresent
studyhypothesisesthattheSMOTcanbeadaptedtoamoregeneralschoolmotivation
questionnaire[16].
ThemodelofSMOTwasgroundedonthesocial-cognitivetheoryoflearning[23].
-
vationincombinationwithpersonalrelevance,self-determination,andself-efflcacyand
extrinsicmotivationdifferentiatedingradeandcareermotivation[21,22].
WhenusingtheSMOTinSTEAMprojectswithcreativityinsecondaryscienceschool
classes,acorrelationbetweencreativityandSMOTwasverifled[24,25].Otherschool
topreviousstudies,centralmotivationtheoriescorrelatewithcreativity[26].Inthis
context,theroleofcreativityincareermotivationviaself-efflcacypromotionisparticularly
noteworthy[27].Eventhecognitiveperformancecouldbeincreasedthroughstrengthened
motivationwithcreativeeducationalapproaches[26].Finally,asurveyofSMOTand
creativityfollowingtheabove-mentionedSTEAMstudiescanindicatetheinstrument’s
validity[24–27].
Developmentmaturityandcreativityhavesimilardemandsonschoolpedagogy;both
requireanadequatesocialenvironmenttodevelop[5].Thepracticalneedtotrysomething
newmaytriggercreativity,butonlysocialrecognitionandsocialsecuritywillallowit
toflourish[28].Thus,everydayschooleducationneedsasocialenvironmenttofoster
imagination[29]andgivespaceforcreativeexperimenting[26].Maudescribedthatin
thesearchforthepossiblesolutiontoacomplexproblem,a“multi-levelcreativity”with
vividand“plasticimagination”mustbedeveloped,withwhichmanyideasaregenerated,
checkedforadequacy,andselectedforfurther(practical)testing[30].Real-timecreativity
requiresspontaneitywiththeabilitytoimprovise[30].Thishighlevelofcognitivecreativity
,creativity
confrontinghumankindrequireasocietywithahighdegreeofcreativity[31].Modern:.
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educationshouldofferavarietyofopportunitiesforcreativethinking[31].Ininstructional
settings,Hsuindicatedpre-creativityincubationstageascrucialforindividualpersonality
traitsrelevanttocreativity[29].Educatorsmayencourageindividualstocombineworkin
variousaspectsofimaginationtodeveloptheircreativity.
InacreativeSTEMclass,creativitypromotesself-efflcacy,which,inturn,drives
(science)motivation[27,32].Creativityisabalancebetweenlogicalthinkingandimagina-
tion[33],cognitivestimuli,andemotionalpromoters[5].Withtheincreasingcomplexityof
creativity,cognitiveandspeciflcskillsarerequiredtoperformcreativework[34].Thefour
keycompetenciesofthe21stcenturyarecriticalthinking,collaboration,communication
andcreativity,withthelastoneidentifledasanempoweringfactorformotivation[35].
Perkinsclaimedcreativityasaresultofculturalcontexts[36,37].Increativity,theinter-
actionbetweentheindividual,theproduct,andthesocialenvironmentisregardedas
essential[28].Insummary,thecreativeindividualsolvesproblems,designsproducts,
ordeflnesnewissuesinafleldorarearegardedasuniqueandacceptedinthecultural
context[38].Thepossibilitytoactoutcreativityseemstopromotemotivationevenforthe
subjectbeyondthecreativeapproach[11].
Furthermore,learningisconstructedthroughactiveparticipationaschildrenengage
inthelearningprocesstoactoutsolutionstoproblemsathand[4].Similarly,Papert
describessuchcognitiveautonomyas“intellectualself-determinism”aschildrenactas
creatorsratherthanconsumersofknowledge[39].Creativityispreciselymorethanart,as
appreciatedinthelivelydiscussionofSTEAM(STEMwithArts)development[40].Therefore,
weareparticularlyinterestedinhowcreativitycorrelateswithmotivationalfactors.
Inoursearchforameasurementtoolforgeneralschoolmotivationofstudents,our
researchquestionsweretwo-fold:
(i)DoesthemotivationalfactorstructureoftheSMOTexistafteradaptingSMOTfor
moregenerallearningmotivationnamedSchMOTwhentraditionalfactoranaly-
ses,aswellasstructuralequationmodels,wereapplied?
(ii)Iscreativityfundamentallylinkedtomotivation,sothatthecorrelationofcreativity
withsciencemotivationisalsoconflrmedforthismoregeneralquestioningtool
SchMOT?
TheSMOTinstrumentitems[16]werereformulatedtowardsageneralschoolmotiva-
tionratherthanaspeciflcsubject-relatedmotivation(Table1).Fivesubscaleswereapplied,
usinga5-pointLikertscalepatternrangingfrom“never”(1)to“always”(5)(Table1).
Threeitemscouldnotbegeneralisedandthusnotretained(CM10“Mycareerwill
involvescience.”SE19“IamsureIcanunderstandscience.”IM2“Iamcuriousabout
discoveriesinscience.”).Accordingtobothwordingandfactoranalysis,item21ofthe
subscale“IntrinsicMotivation”wasassignedtothesubscale“CareerMotivation”.5th
gradersreporttheirunwillingnesstoanswercareerquestions,sothissubscale(Items6–10,
21)wasnotconsideredinfurtheranalysis.
Forcreativitymeasurement,wefocusedonthecognitive(thinking)andnon-cognitive
(motivation)dimensionsofcreativity[41].Thiscognitivecreativityhastheadvantage
entirelyamatterofpersonalthoughtprocesses,whichcanbeeitherbrokenormademore
(CognitiveProcessesAssociated
withCreativity)measurementtoolofMillerandDumford[41]modifledbyConradtyand
Bogner[42]andextendedbyRoth,ConradtyandBogner[43](Table2).ThesubscaleACT
quantiflescognitiveprocessesofconsciousandactivethinkingthatcanbetaughtand
aproblem,visualisingtheresultinthemind’seye,comparingtheproblemwithprevious
experiencesandexchangingideaswithothers[41].ThesubscaleFLOWmonitorstypical
elementsofaflowexperience[28],whichsupposedlyassessesmotivationalexperiencesat:.
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acreativeprocessinafeelingofenergizedfocus,fullinvolvement,anden-joyment[28].
,the
abilitytoflowtendstovanishwithage,probablyreplacedbyknowledge-based,logical
sense-makingpatterns[28].Aone-sidededucationbasedonverbalizingandontestable
knowledgemayacceleratethisshift[28].