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ThePredicativemodalauxilityisacategoryofmodal
,ratherhomogeneousin
nature,isconcernedwiththespeaker’sassuptionor
assessmentofprobabilityand,inmostcases,indicatesthe
speaker’
example,might,may,could,can.
Anaphoricrefernce:
personalpronoun,forexample,oftenhasanaphoric
reference,
,annwasstudyingforher
,
shehasanaphoricreference.
-finiteverbs:
Thenon-finiteverbsaresocalledbecausetheyarenot
markedforttenseofforsubject-
threetypesofnon-finiteverbs:infinitive,-ingparticipleand
–edparticiple.
Theextrapositionisdefinedasthereplacementofthe
postponeditembyasubstituteform.
第1页:.
spokenorwritten,proseorverse,
maybeanythingfromasingleproverbtoawholeplay,froma
momentarycryforhelptoall-daydiscussiononacommittee.
Participlesbelongtonon-finiteverbtype.
Therearetwokindsofparticiples:-ingparticipleand–ed
participle.
Whenthesubjectofaparticipleisnotexpressed,itis
callthiskindofparticipledanglingparticiple.
“fronting〞
“fronting〞isatermwhichreferstotheremovalofan
itemfromitsunmarkedpost-subjectpositiontothemarked
pre-
positionanitemwhichdoesnotusuallybelongthere,sucha
grammaticaldevicedisturbstheexpectedrouteof
informationflowandinevitablebringsaboutunusualness,.
“thismanovertherepeopleinthevicinityhaveaverylow
opinionof.〞
第2页:.
“ellipsis〞
Thebasicprincipleofellipsisisleavingoutsomething
understoodandhenceproducesimcompletesentenceswith
,
somehowlikesubstitutions,setsupcohesiononthebasisof
structuralrecoverabilitywithreferencetothelinguistic
:
nominal:whygivemetwocupsofcoffeeIonlyaskedforone.
:A:haveyouseenhimbefore
B:yes,Ihave.
:A:willitraintomorrow
B:perhaps.
Determinersrefertowordswhichareusedinthe
premodificationofanounphraseandwhichtypicallyprecede
anyadjectivesthatpremodifytheheadword.
Themajorfunctionofprepositionsistoconnectnouns,
verbsandadjectivestootherpartsofthesentence,..Iget
uoearlyinthemorning.
Disjunctsconveyacommentonthecontentoftheclauseto
第3页:.
whichtheyareperipherallyattached.
Adjuntisawordoragroupofwordswhichweaddtoa
clausetosaysomethingthecircumstancesofaneventor
situation,forexample,when,whereorhowitoccurs.
Itisusedtocoveralltheverbformsthatexpress
assumptionscontrarytothegivenfactornotlikelytobe
materialized,andbecomesafarlessimportantverbal
categorythanwassuggested.
Coordinationisrealizedbycoordinatorswhichjoinunitsat
thesamelevel.
Subordinationisrealizedbysubordinators,involvesthe
linkingofunitsatdifferentlevelssothattheyforma
whichisattachedtothemainclause.
Doublegenitive,alsoreferredtoasthe“postgenitive〞,is
alsocalledbecauseitisacombinationofthegenitiveandthe
of-phrase,suchasafriendofmybrother’s.
第4页:.
Nounclassesincludepropernounsandcommonnouns.
Commonnounsincludecountablenounsandmassnouns.
Countablenounsincludeconcretenounsandabstract
nouns.
Propernounsdenoteindividualpersons,places,
propernounnormallybeginswithacapicalletter,hasno
pluralformandcannotoccurafteranarticle.
Nounscannottakepluralarecalledmassnouns.
Collectivenounsrefertoagroupofpeople,animaland
things,whichareusuallycountable.
Itisalsocalled"partitive",isaveryspecialclassofwords
thatisusedtospecifythequantitiesmeasuresandshapesof
themodifiednounsuchas:piece,batch,bunch,item,etc.
Nounsarealwaysoccurinpluralform.
Threetendenciesareatworkintheinflectionofcompounds
第5页:.
forplural:pluralizethelastelement,pluralizethefirst
elementandplurizebothfirstandthelastelements.
Singularinvariablearenormallyinvariablesingulars,
propernounsandmassnounsbelongtosingularinvariables.
:
Thosequestionsthatsuggesttwo(ormore)alternativesand
usuallyimplythatoneofthemcouldbetrue.
-exclamations:
Exclamationsthatareledbytheadverb‘how’.It
highlightstheadjective,adverb,orverbinexclamations.
:
Theyarewordsborrowedfromsomeotherlanguageswhich
stilltaketheiroriginalformsofplural,Mostoften,theyare
from-Latin,French,Greek:alumna--alumnae,
index--indices,plateau--plateaux,analysis—analyses,etc.
Formsorconstructionusedtodenotepossession,
measurementorsource.
Example:John’scar;amoment’sdigression;the
resistanceofIraq
-progressiveverbs
第6页:.
verbsthatcannotoccurintheprogressiveaspect.
Anyoneoftheinflectedformsintheconjugationofaverb
thatindicatesthetemporallocationofaneventorastateof
affairs.
Aspectreflectsthewayinwhichtheverbactionisregarded
orexperiencedwithrespecttotime.
-passiveandbe-passive
Get-passiveisfarlesspopularthanbe-
are:first,get-passiveisgenerallyavoidedinformasyle,and
evenininformalEnglishitisfarlessfrequentthan
be-,semantically,get-passiveistypically
usedtorefertoanevent,ratherthanastate;todenotethe
consequenceratherthattherocess,ofanevent;andtolay
emphasisonwhathappens()tothesubject
asaresultoftheevent,ratherthanwhoactuallycausesthe
event.
-passive:
Apseudo-passivesentenceispassiveinformbutactivein
-participleisadjectivalizedsothatitbecomes
,itcanoccurina
第7页:.
comparativeconstruction,withavarietyofprepositional
phrasesotherthanby-phrase,andwithotherlinkverbs
besidesbeandget.
:
Apropertyofverbsorasetofverbinflectionsindicatingthe
relationbetweenthesubjectandtheactionexpressedbythe
verb.
:
Asetofverbformsorinflectionsusedtoindicatethe
speaker'sattitudetowardthefactualityorlikelihoodofthe
isusedtomakefactualstatements,thesubjunctivemoodto
indicatedoubtorunlikelihood,andtheimperativemoodto
expressacommand.
-passive:
Thepassivemadeupof‘auxiliarybe+v-ed’.Forexample:
ThebookwaswrittenbyHamilton.
be-subjunctive:
Anallomorphisanindistinctivevariantofamorpheme.
-subjunctive
Itisformallymarkedbytheuseofthebaseoftheverb;that
第8页:.
is,theverbinvariablyoccursinthebaseformfreefromthe
concordconstraintswiththesubjectandfromthetense
:Itisimportantthat
thebosshandleitinperson.
:
OneofasetofEnglishverbs,includingcan,may,must,
ought,shall,should,will,wouldandetc.,thatare
characteristicallyusedwithotherverbstoexpressmoodor
tense.
Theinfinitive,whichoccursasaverbinthebaseform
withouttoiscalledbareinfinitive.
Preposition:Insomelanguages,awordplacedbeforea
substantiveandindicatingtherelationofthatsubstantiveto
averb,anadjective,oranothersubstantive,asEnglishat,by,
in,to,from,andwith.
:
Italsotermed‘agreement’,canbedefinedas‘the
relationshipbetweentwogrammaticalunitssuchthatoneof
temdisplaysaparticularfeaturethataccordswitha
displayedfeatureintheother.
:
第9页:.
Statementsintheformofsimplesentencesarethe
functionistoconveyinformation,inapositivewayorina
polarity-positivestatementandnegativestatement.
:
Anassertivesentenceiseitheraninterrogativesentenceor
.
-assertion:
Anon-assertivesentenceiseitheraninterrogativesentence
-assertivewords
andnegativewords.
Anegativestatementbasicallyexoressesthespeaker’s
statementcanbeaccomplicatedbyinsetingavarietyof
negativewords,amongwhich“not〞isbyfarthemost
commonlyusedeitherinwritingorinspeaking.
Transferrednegationreferstitheshiftifnagationfromthe
subordinateclause,whereitsemanticallybelongsto,the
,
第10页:.
believe,suppose,imagineandexpect,thatis,verbsthat
express“opinion〞.
-negatives
Semi-negativesrefertowordswhicharenegativein
,rarely,
scarcely,hardly,barely,little,few,
ordinarynegativeitemsaresuchthattheyarefollowedby
non-assertiveratherthanassertivewordsandthattheyare
followedbypositivethannegativetagquestions.
-noquestions
Theyaresocalledbecausetheycanbeansweredbya
simple“yes〞or“no〞.theychallengethevalidityofthe
propositionbywayofaskingforconfirmationordenialofthe
finalrisingtone.
-finiteclauses
Thenon-clasusesaretheonesthatleavesubjectsunsaid
andverbsinnon-finiteforms
-questions
Theycoversallquestionsthatnormallybeginswith
wh-seriesofwords,,when,why,who,whose,which
,theyaresometimes
第11页:.
called“informationquestions〞becausetheyrequiresome
,theyaskfordetails
aboutapartofit.
Theyfallintotwosubclasses:oneisformedonthebasisof
yes-noquedtions;theotheronthebasisofwh-questions.
Theysuggesttwoalternativesandusuallyimplythatoneof
answers.
Theyarealsocalled“disjunctivequestions〞.Atag
questionnormallyconsistsofastatementandaquestiontag.
Thetagisayes-
thenorminanegativetag.
typicallytaketheformofanimperativesentenceandthe
mainverbinanimperativesentencetakesthebaseformand
imperativesaregenerallyformedbyadding“don’t〞inthe
intialpositionandsubstitutingnon-assertivewordfor
第12页:.
assertivewordwhereapplicable.
Therearetwomajortypesifexclamations:
what-exclamationsandhow-
emotional;theyexpresstheextentofourimpressionof
something,typicallyoursurprise,excitement,amazement,
disappoinment,
exclamationmark.
-exclamations
Itiskindofexclamationwhichisintroducedbywhat,
“what〞,adeterminerinawhat-exclamation,helpsto
identifytheideaexpressedbythenounphrasewhereit
-nounphrasecanbeobject,complement,
-nounphrasecanbea
singularcountablenounanditcanalsobeapluraloran
uncountablenoun.
-exclamation
Thisexclamationisintroducedbyhow.〞how〞isan
-lightstheadjective,adverb,orverbin
exclamations.