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Statistics
The SAGE Dictionary of
Statistics
Duncan Cramer and Dennis Howitt
SAGE
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The SAGE Dictionary of Statistics
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The SAGE Dictionary of Statistics
a practical resource for students
in the social sciences
Duncan Cramer and Dennis Howitt
SAGE Publications
London ● Thousand Oaks ● New Delhi
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© Duncan Cramer and Dennis Howitt 2004
First published 2004
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or
private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by
any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside those terms should be sent to
the publishers.
SAGE Publications Ltd
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
SAGE Publications Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd
B-42, Panchsheel Enclave
Post Box 4109
New Delhi 110 017
British Library Cataloguing in Publication data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
ISBN 0 7619 4137 1
ISBN 0 7619 4138 X (pbk)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2003115348
Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Printed in Great Britain by The Cromwell Press Ltd,
Trowbridge, Wiltshire
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Contents
Preface vii
mon Statistical Notation ix
A to Z 1–186
Some Useful Sources 187
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To our mothers – it is not their fault that lexicography took i