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Failed Stone
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To my children: Galvin, Carly and Liam
May the buildings that house you in
the future benefit from the experience
gained from buildings in the past.
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Patrick Loughran
Failed Stone
Problems and Solutions with Concrete and Masonry
Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture
Basel · Berlin · Boston
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We would like to thank the Graham Foundation for
Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts for their generous
support of this publication.
“When I was a little boy…..
I used to walk by the beach and move stones
Just so there would be some residue of my existence,
Some change in the world
that resulted from my having been there.”
Richard Solomon, 2002 speech
Director of the Graham Foundation from 1993–2005
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Table of Contents
Preface 6
Thermal Hysteresis 10
Impact 22
Efflorescence 34
Surface Defects 48
Discoloration 70
Corrosion 92
Structure 108
Leakage 130
Acknowledgments 152
About the Author 153
Selected Bibliography 154
Index 156
Illustration Credits 159
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White marble buildings had e notorious
failures that were being re-clad with metal
and granite façades. I was shocked to find
out that Finlandia Hall was re-clad with the
same material that originally failed: thin white
marble panels from Carrara. Incredibly, the
photo on the cover is not of the original build-
ing, but of the replacement panels just a few
years after installation. This architectural
tragedy reminds me of a quote from e
Santayana, an American philosopher and
poet, “Those who cannot learn from history
are doomed to repeat it.”
The mission of Failed Stone is to present
knowledge from past projects in an effort to
prevent the occurrence of future